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![Fused Quartz - Clear]( "Fused Quartz - Clear")
Fused Quartz - Clear
Fused Quartz - Clear - Fused quartz or fused silica is glass consisting of silica in amorphous (non-crystalline) form. It differs from traditional glasses in containing no other ingredients, which are typically added to glass to lower the melt temperature. Fused silica, therefore, has high working and melting temperatures. The optical and thermal properties of fused quartz are superior to those of other types of glass due to its purity. For these reasons, it finds use in situations such as semiconductor fabrication and laboratory equipment. It has better ultraviolet transmission than most other glasses, and so is used to make lenses and other optics for the ultraviolet spectrum. Its low coefficient of thermal expansion also makes it a useful material for precision mirror substrates. Fused quartz is produced by fusing (melting) high-purity silica sand, which consists of quartz crystals. Quartz contains only silicon and oxygen, although commercial quartz glass often contains impurities. The most dominant impurities are aluminium and titanium.
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![Glass]( "Glass")
Glass
Glass is a uniform material of arguable phase, usually produced when the viscous molten material cools very rapidly to below its glass transition temperature, without sufficient time for a regular crystal lattice to form. The most familiar form of glass is the Silica-based material used for household objects such as light bulbs and windows.
Glass is a biologically inactive material that can be formed into smooth and impervious surfaces. Glass is brittle and will break into sharp shards. These properties can be modified or changed with the addition of other compounds or heat treatment.
Common glass contains about 70-72 weight % of silicon dioxide (SiO2). The major raw material is sand (or "quartz sand") that contains almost 100% of crystalline silica in the form of quartz. Although it is an almost pure quartz, it may still contain a small amount (< 1%) of iron oxides that would color the glass, so this sand is usually enriched in the factory to reduce the iron oxide amount to < 0.05%. Large natural single crystals of quartz are purer silicon dioxide, and upon crushing are used for high quality specialty glasses. Synthetic amorphous silica (practically 100% pure) is the raw material for the most expensive specialty glasses.
Professional Plastics does not distribute glass products. We are a supplier of "plexiglass" acrylic sheets, plates, rods, tubes and customer profiles and shapes.
- Plexiglass is 17 times stronger than glass, but 50% of the weight !!
- Plexiglass has better clarity and light transmission perperties than glass.
- Also available in bulletproof glass (aka anti-ballistic glass)
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![Industrial Laminate Descriptions]( "Industrial Laminate Descriptions")
Industrial Laminate Descriptions
Industrial laminates generally refers to a class of electrical insulating materials produced by impregnating fibrous webs of material with thermosetting resins, then fusing multiple layers together under high temperature and pressure. The result is an infusible laminate structure having a versatile combination of electrical, mechanical and chemical properties.
| Grade | Description |
| Grade X | Hard, strong, paper-reinforced laminates; good tensile compression and flexural strengths; widely used for mechanical applications when electrical requirements are not severe; should be used with discretion under high humidity conditions. |
| Grade XX | Hard paper-reinforced laminate with phenolic resin binder; good mechanical properties, high dielectric strength and resistance to moisture suit it for many usual electrical applications; good machinability. |
| Grade XXX | Paper-reinforced laminate with a phenolic resin binder; has approximately the same mechanical properties as Grade XX but is considerably better electrically due to its high resin content; desirable for use at radio frequencies and under high humidity conditions (e.g., in telephone jacks where dimensional stability is important); minimum cold flow. |
| Grade XP | Paper-reinforced laminate with phenolic resin binder and addition of a plasticizer; similar to Grade X but more flexible and slightly better electrically (not as strong mechanically); may be punched readily at room temperature in thicknesses up to 1/16-in; hot-punched up to 3/32 in. |
| Grade XPC | Paper-reinforced laminate with plasticized phenolic resin binder; primarily intended for cold punching and shearing; more flexible than Grade XP. |
| Grade XXP | Paper-reinforced laminate with plasticized phenolic resin binder; similar to Grade XX in electrical and moisture-resistant properties and to Grade XP in punchability; for electrical or electronic parts, especially those punched. |
| Grade XXXP | Paper-reinforced laminate similar to Grade XXX, but bonded with plasticized resin; low in dielectric losses; low cold flow; recommended for punching of parts requiring high insulation resistance at high frequencies and high humidity; should be punched hot. |
| Grade XXXP-C, FR-2 | Paper-reinforced laminates similar to XXXP in mechanical properties, dielectric strength, dissipation factor and dielectric constant, but with better resistance to moisture and high insulation resistance; indicated for high humidity conditions; XXXP-C is recommended for punching and shearing at room temperature; FR-2 is a flame-retarded grade. |
| Grade C | Fabric-reinforced laminate produced from cotton fabric weighing over 4 oz./sq.yd; thread count not more than 72/in. in filler direction, not over 140 total in warp and filler directions; Grade C is tough and strong, has high impact strength, machines readily and is good for a wide variety of mechanical applications such as gears, pulleys, and sheaves. |
| Grade CE | Similar to Grade C in weight of fabric and thread count; greater resistance to moisture than grade C and controlled electrical properties; easy to machine; used in electrical applications requiring mechanical strength. |
| Grade L | Fine-weave cotton fabric-reinforced grade with phenolic binder, made from fabric weighing not over 4 oz./sq. yd.; minimum thread count/in. in any ply is 72 in filler direction and 140 total in both warp and filler directions; has good mechanical properties; machines easily and cleanly; recommended for fine punching or threading; suited for close-tolerance machining; fine pitch gears are typical uses. |
| Grade LE | Fine-weave cotton fabric-reinforced grade of same thread count as Grade L; similar to Grade L in mechanical and machining characteristics but superior in moisture resistance, dissipation factor, and other electricals; used where good electrical and mechanical property combinations are needed. |
| Grade FR-3 | Paper-reinforced laminate bonded with epoxy resin; superior in electrical characteristics to Grade XXXP; good mechanical properties; suitable for punching at room temperature; FR-3 is flame retardant recommended for printed circuit boards and electrical insulation requiring low loss. |
| Grade N-1 | Staple fiber-nylon grade impregnated with phenolic resin; electrical properties of Grade XXXP and mechanical toughness of Grade C; improved insulation resistance for high humidity applications; high-voltage electrical insulators where low dielectric loss, high insulation resistance plus fungus resistance are required. |
| Grade G-3 | Continuous-filament woven glass-fabric grade with a phenolic resin binder; good thermal endurance; good mechanical strength, especially flexural, compressive, shear, and impact; very low dissipation factor. |
| Grade G-5 | Continuous-filament woven glass-fabric grade impregnated with melamine resin; high mechanical strength and arc resistance; excellent electrical properties under dry conditions; flame retardant. |
| Grade G-7 | Continuous-filament glass-cloth reinforcement with a silicone resin binder; good dielectric loss factor and insulation resistance under humid conditions over a wide temperature range; good heat and arc resistance. |
| Grade G-9 | Continuous-filament woven glass-fabric grade impregnated with melamine resin; high mechanical strength and arc resistance; good electric strength properties under wet conditions; flame retardant. |
| Grade G-10, G-11, FR-4, FR-5 | Continuous-filament woven glass-fabric grades impregnated with epoxy resin; particularly noted for good electrical values; possess low moisture absorption and low dissipation factor, and maintains electrical characteristics over a wide range of humidities and temperatures; G-10 and FR-4 retain 20% of their flexural strength at 150°C when tested at this temperature; G-11 and FR-5 retain 50% of their flexural strength when tested at the same temperature; FR-4 and FR-5 are flame retardant. |
| Vulcanized fibre; commercial, bone, and insulation grades. | Somewhat similar to Grade C laminate but with much higher moisture pickup; tough and resilient, with high resistance to arc, impact, abrasion and wear; used as washers, terminal block covers, insulating plates and switch covers, slot insulation, arc barriers, abrasive disks, railroad track insulation, trunks and materials-handling cases. |
| GPO-1 | Polyester/glass-mat sheet laminate - suited for general-purpose mechanical and electrical applications. (Polyester glass-mat sheets are made from a mat of random-laid glass fibres which are saturated with a polyester resin combined with suitable fillers and cured under heat and pressure.) |
| GPO-2 | Polyester/glass-mat sheet laminate - for mechanical and electrical applications where low flammability is required.Polyester glass-mat sheets are made from a mat of random-laid glass fibres which are saturated with a polyester resin combined with suitable fillers and cured under heat and pressure.) |
| GPO-3 | Polyester/glass-mat sheet laminate - for mechanical and electrical applications requiring resistance to carbon tracking and low flammability properties.Polyester glass-mat sheets are made from a mat of random-laid glass fibres which are saturated with a polyester resin combined with suitable fillers and cured under heat and pressure.) |
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![LP-509 Phenolic Specification]( "LP-509 Phenolic Specification")
LP-509 Phenolic Specification
LP-509 (LP-509A) is a federal specification covering thermoset phenolic and glass epoxy laminate sheets, rods and tubes. This specification was superceeded by Mil-P-15035 and later by Mil-I-24768. Mil-I-24768 is the current specification covering these products. For a complete list and product links, Click Here
LP-509 Grades (all superceeded by Mil-I-24768):
XX Paper Grade Phenolic
Current Spec: Mil-I-24768/11 Type PBG
(LP 509, MIL P 3115, Type PBE)
Grade XX is a hard, paper-based, reinforced laminate with a phenolic resin binder. It is moisture-resistant and has good machinability and mechanical properties. It is appropriate for most electrical applications.
XXX Paper Grade Phenolic - Order Online
Current Spec: Mil-I-24768/10 Type PBE
(LP 509, MIL 3115, Type PBE)
Grade XXX has similar mechanical properties as Grade XX but is considerably better electrically because of its high resin content. This material is ideal for use at radio frequencies and under very humid conditions.
C - Canvas Phenolic - Order Online
Current Spec: Mil-I-24768/16 Type FBM
(LP 509, MIL P 15035, Type FBM)
Grade C is a strong cotton-reinforced laminate (weighing more than 4 ounces per square yard) with high-impact strength. It is easily machined and outstanding for a wide variety of mechanical applications.
CE - Canvas Electrical Grade Phenolic - Order Online
Current Spec: Mil-I-24768/14 Type FBG
(LP 509, MIL P 15035, Type FBG)
Similar to Grade C in weight and thread count, Grade CE has greater moisture resistance. It is tough and resilient, easily machined, and ideal for a number of electrical applications where mechanical strength is needed.
L - Linen Phenolic - Order Online
Current Spec: Mil-I-24768/15
(LP 509, MIL P 15035, Type FBI)
Grade L is a fine-weave cotton cloth reinforced with a phenolic binder. Weighing not more than 4 ounces per square yard, Grade L is recommended for fine punchings or threading or for close-tolerance machining.
LE - Linen Electrical Grade Phenolic - Order Online
Current Spec: Mil-I-24768/13 Type FBE
(LP 509, MIL P 15035, Type FBE)
Grade LE is similar to Grade L but with better moisture resistance and increased dimensional stability. It is also acid-resistant. Grade LE is recommended for fabricated parts that need smooth edges and good mechanical strength.
N-1 Nylon Fabric Phenolic - Order Online
Current Spec: Mil-I-24768/9 Type NPG
(LP-509, MIL P 15047, Type NPG)
Grade N-1 is a staple-fiber nylon-fabric impregnated with a phenolic resin. It has good electrical properties and mechanical toughness, and it is very humidity-resistant. Grade N-1 is excellent for high-voltage electrical insulators requiring low dielectric loss, high insulation resistance, and fungus resistance.
G-9 (G-5) Melamine - Order Online
Current Spec: Mil-I-24768/1 Type GME
(LP 509, MIL P 15037, Type GMG)
Grade G-9 (also known as Grade G-5) is a continuous-filament, woven-glass fabric reinforced with melamine resin. It has excellent strength under wet conditions and is ideal for applications requiring arc and flame resistance. It retains its shape and size and works well in wet environments.
G-7 Silicone Glass Laminate Order Online
Current Spec: Mil-I-24768/17 Type GSC
(LP 509, MIL P 997, Type GSG)
Grade G-7 is a continuous glass fabric laminated with silicone resin. It is unequalled for high heat and arc resistance applications and can withstand humid conditions at temperatures of 460° F or higher.
G-10 & FR-4 Glass Epoxy Laminate - Order Online
Current Spec G-10 Mil-I-24768/2 Type GEE
Current Spec FR-4 Mil-I-24768/27 Type GEE-F
(LP 509, MIL P 18177, Type GEE)
Grades G-10 and FR-4 are continuous-filament, woven-glass cloth materials, permeated with an epoxy resin. These materials have good machining characteristics and good flexural, bond, and impact strength. They also exhibit excellent electrical properties over a wide variety of temperatures and have low moisture-absorption and heat-distortion characteristics.
G-11 Glass Epoxy Laminate - Order Online
Current Spec: Mil-I-24768/3 Type GEB
(LP 509, MIL P 18177, Type GEB)
Grade G-11 is similar to Grade G-10 but is self-extinguishing and exhibits a high mechanical strength up to 300° F.
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![Military Specifications List]( "Military Specifications List")
Military Specifications List
| Spec | Description |
| MIL-I-18622A | Insulation Tape, Electrical, Pressure Sensitive Silicone Rubber Treated Glass |
| MIL-I-18748A | Insulation Tape, Glass Fabric TFE Coated |
| MIL-I-19161A | Plastic Sheet, Teflon TFE & Glass Cloth Laminated |
| MIL-I-19166A | Insulation Tape Electrical, Pressure Sensitive, High Temperature Glass |
| MIL-I-21557B | Insulation Sleeving, Electrical, Flexible Vinyl Treated Glass Fiber |
| MIL-I-22129C | Insulation Sleeving, Electrical, Non-Rigid Teflon TFE Resin |
| MIL-I-23053A | Insulation Sleeving, Electrical, Flexible, Heat-Shrinkable |
| MIL-I-23594A | Insulation Tape, Electrical, High Temperature, Teflon, Pressure Sensitive |
| MIL-I-24204 | Nomex Film |
| MIL-I-24768 | Insulation, Plastics, Laminated, Thermosetting |
| MIL-I-3190B | Insulation Sleeving, Flexible, Treated |
| MIL-I-3825A | Insulation Tape, Electrical, Self-Fusing |
| MIL-I-631 | Electrical Insulation, Tubing, Film, Sheet & Tape, Vinyl, Polyethylene & Polyester |
| MIL-I-742C | Fiberglass Thermal Insulation board |
| MIL-I-7798A | Insulation Tape, Electrical, Pressure Sensitive |
| MIL-M-20693A | Plastic Molding Material, Rigid Polyamide |
| MIL-M-21470 | Polychlorotrefluoroethylene Resin for Molding |
| MIL-N-18352 | Nylon Plastic, Flexible Molded or Extended |
| MIL-P-13436A | Filled Phenolic Sheet, Uncured |
| MIL-P-13491 | Polystyrene Rod & Tube |
| MIL-P-13949D | Copper-Clad, Laminated Plastic Sheets (Paper Base & Glass Base) |
| MIL-P-14591B | Plastic Film, Non Rigid, Transparent |
| MIL-P-15035C | Thermoset Phenolic Sheet, Cotton Reinforced |
| MIL-P-15037E | Thermoset Melamine Resin Sheet, Glass Reinforced |
| MIL-P-15047B | Thermoset Phenolic Resin Sheet, Nylon Reinforced |
| MIL-P-15126F | Insulation Tape, Electrical, Pressure Sensitive & Thermoset Adhesive |
| MIL-P-16413 | Methyl Methacrylate Molding Materials |
| MIL-P-16414 | Cellulose Acetate Butyrate Molding Material |
| MIL-P-16416 | Cellulose Acetate Molding Material |
| MIL-P-17091B | Polyamide (Nylon) Resin Rods, Sheets & Parts |
| MIL-P-17276 | Cellulose Acetate Sheet |
| MIL-P-17549C | Fibrous Glass Reinforced Plastic Laminates for Marine Applications |
| MIL-P-18057A | Insulation Sleeving, Flexible Silicone Rubber Coated Glass |
| MIL-P-18177C | Thermoset Epoxy Sheet, Glass Reinforced |
| MIL-P-18324C | Thermoset Phenolic, Cotton Reinforced, Moisture Resistant |
| MIL-P-19336C | Plastic Sheets, Polyethylene, Virgin & Borated Neutron Shielding |
| MIL-P-19468A | Plastic Rods Molded & Extruded Teflon TFE |
| MIL-P-19735B | Molding, Acrylic, Colored & White Heat Resistant for Lighting Fixtures |
| MIL-P-19833B | Glass Filled Diallyipthlalate Resin |
| MIL-P-19904 | Plastic Sheet ABS Copolymer, Rigid |
| MIL-P-21094A | Cellulose Acetate, Optical Quality |
| MIL-P-21105C | Plastic Sheet, Acrylic, Utility Grade |
| MIL-P-21347B | Plastic Molding Material, Polystyrene, Glass Fiber Reinforced |
| MIL-P-21922A | Plastic Rods & Tubes Polyethylene |
| MIL-P-22035 | Plastic Sheets, Polyethylene |
| MIL-P-22076A | Insulation Sleeving Electrical, Flexible Low Temperature |
| MIL-P-22096A | Plastic, Polyamide (Nylon) Flexible Molding & Extrusion Material |
| MIL-P-22241A | Plastic Sheet & Film, Teflon TFE |
| MIL-P-22242 | Cancelled-Refer to MIL-P-22241 |
| MIL-P-22270 | Plastic Film, Polyesterm Polyethylene Coated (For I.D. Cards) |
| MIL-P-22296 | Plastic Tubes & Tubing, Heavy Wall, Teflon TFE Resin |
| MIL-P-22324A | Thermoset Epoxy Resin Sheet, Paper Reinforced |
| MIL-P-22748A | Plastic Material for Molding & Extension, High Density Polyethylene & Copolymers |
| MIL-P-23536 | Plastic Sheets, Virgin & Borated Polyethylene |
| MIL-P-24191 | Plastic Sheet, Acrylic, Colored |
| MIL-P-25374A | Plastic Sheet, Acrylic, Modified Laminated |
| MIL-P-25395A | Heat Resistant, Glass Fiber Base Polyester Resin, Low Pressure Laminated Plastic |
| MIL-P-25421A | Glass Fiber Base - Epoxy Low Pressure Laminated Plastic |
| MIL-P-25518A | Silicone Resin, Glass Fiber Base, Low Pressure Laminated Plastic |
| MIL-P-25690A | Plastic Sheets & Parts, Modified Acrylic Base, Monolithic, Crack Propagation Resistant - Covers Stretched Acrylic .060" Thru .675" in Thickness |
| MIL-P-25770A | Thermoset Phenolic Resin Sheet, Asbestos Reinforced |
| MIL-P-26692 | Plastic Tubes & Sheeting, Polyethylene |
| MIL-P-27538 | Plastic Sheet FEP Fluorocarbon unfilled, Copper clad Tape, Anti-Seizing, Teflon TFE |
| MIL-P-3054A | Polyethylene Special Material |
| MIL-P-3088 | Non-Rigid Polyamide (Nylon) Resin |
| MIL-P-31158 | Thermoset Phenolic Sheet, Paper Reinforced |
| MIL-P-3158C | Insulation Tape & Cord Glass, Resin Filled |
| MIL-P-40619 | Plastic Material, Cellular, Polystyrene |
| MIL-P-43036 | Chlorotrefluoroethlene Polymer- Sheets, Rods & Tubes (plaskon) |
| MIL-P-43037 | Thermoset Phenolic Resin Rod, Nylon Reinforced |
| MIL-P-43081 | Plastic Low-Molecular Weight Polyethylene |
| MIL-P-46040A | Phenolic Sheet, Heat Resistant, Glass Fabric Reinforced |
| MIL-P-46041 | Plastic Sheet, Flexible Vinyl |
| MIL-P-46060 | Plastic Material Nylon |
| MIL-P-46112 | Plastic Sheet & Strip, Polyamide H-Film |
| MIL-P-46115 | Plastic Molding & Extrusion Material, Polyphenylene Oxide PPO |
| MIL-P-46120 | Plastic Molding & Extension Material Polysulfone |
| MIL-P-46122 | Plastic Molding Material, Polyvinylidene Fluoride-Kynar |
| MIL-P-46129 | Plastic Molding & Extension Material, Polyphenylene Oxide, Modified-Noryl |
| MIL-P-46131 | Polyphenylene Oxide, Modified, Glass Filled |
| MIL-P-4640A | Polyethylene Film for balloon use |
| MIL-P-52189 | Thermoset Phenolic Resin Tube, Nylon Reinforced |
| MIL-P-54258 | Acrylic Sheet, Heat Resistant |
| MIL-P-5431A | Phelonic, Graphite Filled Sheet, Rods, Tubes & Shapes |
| MIL-P-55010 | Plastic Sheet, Polyethylene Terephthalate |
| MIL-P-62848 | Vinyl Copolymers, Unplasticized unpigmented & unfilled |
| MIL-P-77 | Cast Polyester OD Diallylpthialate sheet & rod |
| MIL-P-78A | Engraving Stock Rigid Laminated sheets |
| MIL-P-79C | Thermoset Rod & Tube, Melamine & Phenolic Glass, Cotton & Paper Reinforced |
| MIL-P-8059A | Thermoset Phenolic Resin Sheets & Tubes Asbestos Paper & Cloth Reinforced |
| MIL-P-80 | Acrylic Sheet, Anti-Electrostatic coated |
| MIL-P-81390 | Plastic Molding Material, Polycarbonated, Glass Fiber Reinforced |
| MIL-P-8184 | Acrylic Plastic Sheet, Modified |
| MIL-P-82540 | Polyester Resin, Glass Fiber Base Filament Wound Tube |
| MIL-P-8257 | Polyester Base, Cast Transparent Sheet, Thermosetting |
| MIL-P-8587A | Cellulose Acetate Sheet Colored, Transparent |
| MIL-P-9969 | Polyurethane, Rigid, unicellular, Foam ln-Place for packaging |
| MIL-P-997C | Thermoset Silicone Resin Sheets, Glass Reinforced |
| MIL-T-22742 | Insulation Tape, Electrical, Pressure Sensitive, Teflon TFE Resin |
| MIL-T-23142 | Film Tape, Pressure Sensitive |
| MIL-Y-1140E | Fiber Glass Yam, Cord Sleeving, Tape & Cloth |
| MIL-I-74448 | Insulation Sleeving, Flexible Electrical |
| MIL-M-19098 | Molding Plastics, Polyamide (Nylon) - & Molded & Extruded Polyamide Plastic |
| MIL-P-18080 | Vinyl, Flexible, Transparent, Optical Quality |
| MIL-P-8655A | Thermoset Phenolic Sheet, Post-forming Cotton Reinforced |
| MIL-T-43036 | Tape, Pressure Sensitive, Filament Reinforced Plastic Film |
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![Mylar® Polyester Film (PET Film)]( "Mylar® Polyester Film (PET Film)")
Mylar® Polyester Film (PET Film)
Mylar® Film Sheet (polyester film - PET Film) exhibits superior strength, heat resistance, and excellent insulating properties. The unique qualities of Mylar® film (PET Film) created new consumer markets in magnetic audio and video tape, capacitor dielectrics, packaging, and batteries. Sizes are expressed in INCHES unless otherwise Specified in Feet (FT) or Yards (YDS)
Mylar® Film Sheet is available in Two Standard Types:
Mylar® D (CLEAR is Standard) is a clear, brilliant film which is surface treated on both sides to give superior slip characteristics & excellent handling properties
- Applications: Archival, Graphics, Safety Film, Decorating for laminates, Report covers, microfilm, layout base, membrane switches, protective glazing, labels, overhead transparancies, stationery supplies, graphic arts
- Pre-treatment: Slip Treated
- Approvals: Approved by the US Library of Congress for Archival and Conservation applications
- Note: Mylar D is also available in BLACK Color
Mylar® A (Frosted, Milky White Translucent) (aka Electrical Grade Mylar) polyester film is a flexible strong and durable film with an unusual balance of properties. It is a translucent film. Because it contains no plasticizers it does not become brittle with age under normal conditions.
- Applications: It is used for release applications, office supplies, electrical insulation and industrial laminations with other flexible materials.
- Pre-treatment - No Pre-treatment
- For Thicknesses Greater than .014", see .020"+ Thick PET Film & Sheet
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Nylobrade® Push-On Hose
Nylobrade® Push-On Hose - Premium Thermoplastic Push-On Style Hose is made from a blend of nitrile rubber and PVC reinforced with polyester. Nylobrade® Push-On Hose is specially designed for use with Push-On style barbed fittings which eliminate the need for clamps. This tubing offers cold temperature flexibility and is well suited for air and water lines and outdoor use. Nylobrade® Push-On Hose is lighter and more abrasion resistant than all-rubber push-on style hose.
- Standard coil length is 100 foot
- Nylobrade Push-On Hose may be used up to 200 psi at 68°F.
- Elevated temperatures require in-field testing to determine suitability for use without clamps.
- The opaque black color of Nylobrade Push-On Hose helps hide dirt and scuff marks.
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![O-Rings - Plastic]( "O-Rings - Plastic")
O-Rings - Plastic
O-Rings - Plastic O-Ring Seals - Professional Plastics supplies O-Rings in hundreds of types and sizes to customers worldwide. Materials include: Viton®, Nitrile, EPDM, Silicone, Neoprene, Teflon® PTFE, Chemraz®, and Kalrez®. We maintain locations throughout the USA, Singapore and Taiwan. An O-ring, also known as a packing, or a toric joint, is a mechanical gasket in the shape of a torus; it is a loop of elastomer with a round cross-section, designed to be seated in a groove and compressed during assembly between two or more parts, creating a seal at the interface. The O-ring may be used in static applications or in dynamic applications where there is relative motion between the parts and the O-ring. Dynamic examples include rotating pump shafts and hydraulic cylinder pistons.O-rings are one of the most common seals used in machine design because they are inexpensive, easy to make, and reliable and have simple mounting requirements. They can seal tens of megapascals (thousands of psi) of pressure.
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PharmaPure® Tubing
PharmaPure® is a premium, low spallation, biologically compatible peristaltic pump tubing developed especially for pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and laboratory applications. This tubing meets the demanding challenges of providing unsurpassed pump life, with ultra-low particulate spallation and very low permeability. PharmaPure®'s superior flex life characteristics simplifies the manufacturing process by reducing production downtime due to pump tubing failures. PharmaPure® has low permeability and is ideal for protecting sensitive cell cultures, fermentation, separation, purification, process monitoring, and sterile filling.
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PharMed® BPT Tubing
PharMed® BPT Tubing is less permeable to gases and vapors than silicone tubing. It is ideal for cell culture, fermentation, synthesis, separation, purification and process monitoring and control. Independent tests show that PharMed® 65 Tubing is safe for use in sensitive cell culture applications.
PharMed® BPT Tubing has very good general chemical resistance and excellent acid, alkali and oxidation resistance. Opaque to visible and UV light, it helps protect sensitive fluids. Continuous service temperature range is -60°F (-51°C) to 275°F (135°C).
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![Phenolic Mil-I-24768]( "Phenolic Mil-I-24768")
Phenolic Mil-I-24768
Mil-I-24768 - Military Specifications for Thermoset Laminates per Mil-I-24768
- Click Links Below for Pricing, Datasheets, and to Order Online
The following list indicates the military specifications for thermoset laminate materials:
- MIL-I-24768/1 (GME) Glass Melamine Laminate
- MIL-I-24768/2 (GEE) G-10 Glass Epoxy Laminate(non-brominated) Click to Order Online
- MIL-I-24768/3 (GEB) G-11 Glass Epoxy Laminate Click to Order Online
- MIL-I-24768/4 (GPO-1) Glass Polyester Laminate Click to Order Online
- MIL-I-24768/5 (GPO-2) Glass Polyester Laminate Click to Order Online
- MIL-I-24768/6 (GPO-3) Glass Polyester Laminate Click to Order Online
- MIL-I-24768/7 (GTE) Glass Teflon Laminate
- MIL-I-24768/8 (GMG) G-5 Glass Melamine Laminate Click to Order Online
- MIL-I-24768/9 (NPG) Nylon Fabric Phenolic Laminate Click to Order Online
- MIL-I-24768/10 (PBE) Paper Base XXX Phenolic Laminate Click to Order Online
- MIL-I-24768/11 (PBG) Paper Base XX Phenolic Laminate
- MIL-I-24768/12 (PBM) Paper Base X Phenolic Laminate Click to Order Online
- MIL-I-24768/13 (FBE) Cotton LE Phenolic Laminate Click to Order Online
- MIL-I-24768/14 (FBG) Cotton CE Phenolic Laminate Click to Order Online
- MIL-I-24768/15 (FBI) Cotton L Phenolic Laminate Click to Order Online
- MIL-I-24768/16 (FBM) Cotton C Phenolic Laminate Click to Order Online
- MIL-I-24768/17 (GSG) G-7 Glass Silicone Laminate Click to Order Online
- MIL-I-24768/18 (GPG) G-3 Glass Phenolic Laminate Click to Order Online
- MIL-I-24768/19 (PBM-P) Paper Phenolic Laminate
- MIL-I-24768/20 (PBM-PC) Paper Phenolic Laminate
- MIL-I-24768/21 (PBG-P) Paper Phenolic Laminate
- MIL-I-24768/22 (PBE-P) Paper Phenolic Laminate
- MIL-I-24768/23 (PBE-PC) Paper Phenolic Laminate
- MIL-I-24768/24 (PBM-PF) Paper Phenolic Laminate
- MIL-I-24768/25 (PBE-PCF) Paper Phenolic Laminate
- MIL-I-24768/26 (PEE) Paper Epoxy Laminate
- MIL-I-24768/27 (GEE-F) G-10/FR-4 Glass Epoxy Laminate Click to Order Online
- MIL-I-24768/28 (GEB-F) Glass Epoxy Laminate
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![Plastics]( "Plastics")
Plastics
Plastic is the general common term for a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic organic amorphous solid materials suitable for the manufacture of industrial products. Plastics are typically polymers of high molecular weight, and may contain other substances to improve performance and/or reduce costs. The word Plastic derives from the Greek (plastikos) meaning fit for molding, and (plastos) meaning molded. It refers to their malleability, or plasticity during manufacture, that allows them to be cast, pressed, or extruded into an enormous variety of shapes—such as films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles, boxes, and much more. The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, which is applied to any material which undergoes a permanent change of shape (plastic deformation) when strained beyond a certain point. Aluminum, for instance, is plastic in this sense, but not a plastic in the common sense; in contrast, in their finished forms, some plastics will break before deforming and therefore are not plastic in the technical sense.
There are two types of plastics: Thermoplastics and Thermosets.
- Thermoplastics will soften and melt if enough heat is applied; examples are polyethylene, polystyrene, and PTFE.
- Thermosets do not soften or melt no matter how much heat is applied. Examples: Micarta, GPO, G-10
Overview:
Plastics can be classified by their chemical structure, namely the molecular units that make up the polymer's backbone and side chains. Some important groups in these classifications are the acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes, and halogenated plastics. Plastics can also be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis; e.g., as condensation, polyaddition, cross-linking, etc. Other classifications are based on qualities that are relevant for manufacturing or product design. Examples of such classes are the thermoplastic and thermoset, elastomer, structural, biodegradable, electrically conductive, etc. Plastics can also be ranked by various physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, glass transition temperature, resistance to various chemical products, etc.
Due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood; stone; horn and bone; leather; paper; metal; glass; and ceramic, in most of their former uses.
The use of plastics is constrained chiefly by their organic chemistry, which seriously limits their hardness, density, and their ability to resist heat, organic solvents, oxidation, and ionizing radiation. In particular, most plastics will melt or decompose when heated to a few hundred degrees celsius. While plastics can be made electrically conductive to some extent, they are still no match for metals like copper or aluminum.[citation needed] Plastics are still too expensive to replace wood, concrete and ceramic in bulky items like ordinary buildings, bridges, dams, pavement, railroad ties, etc.
Chemical Structure:
Common thermoplastics range from 20,000 to 500,000 in molecular mass, while thermosets are assumed to have infinite molecular weight. These chains are made up of many repeating molecular units, known as repeat units, derived from monomers; each polymer chain will have several thousand repeat units. The vast majority of plastics are composed of polymers of carbon and hydrogen alone or with oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine or sulfur in the backbone. (Some of commercial interests are silicon based.) The backbone is that part of the chain on the main "path" linking a large number of repeat units together. To vary the properties of plastics, both the repeat unit with different molecular groups "hanging" or "pendant" from the backbone, (usually they are "hung" as part of the monomers before linking monomers together to form the polymer chain). This customization by repeat unit's molecular structure has allowed plastics to become such an indispensable part of twenty first-century life by fine tuning the properties of the polymer.
Some plastics are partially crystalline and partially amorphous in molecular structure, giving them both a melting point (the temperature at which the attractive intermolecular forces are overcome) and one or more glass transitions (temperatures above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased). So-called semi-crystalline plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, poly (vinyl chloride), polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes. Many plastics are completely amorphous, such as polystyrene and its copolymers, poly (methyl methacrylate), and all thermosets.
History of Plastics:
The first human-made plastic was invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855; he called this plastic Parkesine (later called celluloid). The development of plastics has come from the use of natural plastic materials (e.g., chewing gum, shellac) to the use of chemically modified natural materials (e.g., rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen, galalite) and finally to completely synthetic molecules (e.g., bakelite, epoxy, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene).
Types of Plastics:
Cellulose-based plastics
In 1855, an Englishman from Birmingham named Alexander Parkes developed a synthetic replacement for ivory which he marketed under the trade name Parkesine, and which won a bronze medal at the 1862 World's fair in London. Parkesine was made from cellulose (the major component of plant cell walls) treated with nitric acid and a solvent. The output of the process (commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxilin) could be dissolved in alcohol and hardened into a transparent and elastic material that could be molded when heated. By incorporating pigments into the product, it could be made to resemble ivory.
Bakelite®
The first plastic based on a synthetic polymer was made from phenol and formaldehyde, with the first viable and cheap synthesis methods invented in 1909 by Leo Hendrik Baekeland, a Belgian-born American living in New York state. Baekeland was searching for an insulating shellac to coat wires in electric motors and generators. He found that mixtures of phenol (C6H5OH) and formaldehyde (HCOH) formed a sticky mass when mixed together and heated, and the mass became extremely hard if allowed to cool. He continued his investigations and found that the material could be mixed with wood flour, asbestos, or slate dust to create "composite" materials with different properties. Most of these compositions were strong and fire resistant. The only problem was that the material tended to foam during synthesis, and the resulting product was of unacceptable quality. Baekeland built pressure vessels to force out the bubbles and provide a smooth, uniform product. He publicly announced his discovery in 1912, naming it bakelite. It was originally used for electrical and mechanical parts, finally coming into widespread use in consumer goods in the 1920s. When the Bakelite patent expired in 1930, the Catalin Corporation acquired the patent and began manufacturing Catalin plastic using a different process that allowed a wider range of coloring. Bakelite was the first true plastic. It was a purely synthetic material, not based on any material or even molecule found in nature. It was also the first thermosetting plastic. Conventional thermoplastics can be molded and then melted again, but thermoset plastics form bonds between polymers strands when cured, creating a tangled matrix that cannot be undone without destroying the plastic. Thermoset plastics are tough and temperature resistant. Bakelite® was cheap, strong, and durable. It was molded into thousands of forms, such as radios, telephones, clocks, and billiard balls. Phenolic plastics have been largely replaced by cheaper and less brittle plastics, but they are still used in applications requiring its insulating and heat-resistant properties. For example, some electronic circuit boards are made of sheets of paper or cloth impregnated with phenolic resin. Bakelite® is now a registered trademark of Bakelite GmbH.
Polystyrene & PVC
After the First World War, improvements in chemical technology led to an explosion in new forms of plastics. Among the earliest examples in the wave of new plastics were polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), developed by IG Farben of Germany. Polystyrene is a rigid, brittle, inexpensive plastic that has been used to make plastic model kits and similar knick-knacks. It would also be the basis for one of the most popular "foamed" plastics, under the name styrene foam or Styrofoam. Foam plastics can be synthesized in an "open cell" form, in which the foam bubbles are interconnected, as in an absorbent sponge, and "closed cell", in which all the bubbles are distinct, like tiny balloons, as in gas-filled foam insulation and flotation devices. In the late 1950s, High Impact Styrene was introduced, which was not brittle. It finds much current use as the substance of signage, trays, figurines and novelties. PVC has side chains incorporating chlorine atoms, which form strong bonds. PVC in its normal form is stiff, strong, heat and weather resistant, and is now used for making plumbing, gutters, house siding, enclosures for computers and other electronics gear. PVC can also be softened with chemical processing, and in this form it is now used for shrink-wrap, food packaging, and rain gear.
Nylon
The real star of the plastics industry in the 1930s was polyamide (PA), far better known by its trade name nylon. Nylon was the first purely synthetic fiber, introduced by DuPont Corporation at the 1939 World's Fair in New York City. In 1927, DuPont had begun a secret development project designated Fiber66, under the direction of Harvard chemist Wallace Carothers and chemistry department director Elmer Keiser Bolton. Carothers had been hired to perform pure research, and he worked to understand the new materials' molecular structure and physical properties. He took some of the first steps in the molecular design of the materials. His work led to the discovery of synthetic nylon fiber, which was very strong but also very flexible. The first application was for bristles for toothbrushes. However, Du Pont's real target was silk, particularly silk stockings. Carothers and his team synthesized a number of different polyamides including polyamide 6.6 and 4.6, as well as polyesters.
It took DuPont twelve years and US$27 million to refine nylon, and to synthesize and develop the industrial processes for bulk manufacture. With such a major investment, it was no surprise that Du Pont spared little expense to promote nylon after its introduction, creating a public sensation, or "nylon mania".
Nylon mania came to an abrupt stop at the end of 1941 when the USA entered World War II. The production capacity that had been built up to produce nylon stockings, or just nylons, for American women was taken over to manufacture vast numbers of parachutes for fliers and paratroopers. After the war ended, DuPont went back to selling nylon to the public, engaging in another promotional campaign in 1946 that resulted in an even bigger craze, triggering the so called nylon riots. Subsequently polyamides 6, 10, 11, and 12 have been developed based on monomers which are ring compounds; e.g. caprolactam.nylon 66 is a material manufactured by condensation polymerization. Nylons still remain important plastics, and not just for use in fabrics. In its bulk form it is very wear resistant, particularly if oil-impregnated, and so is used to build gears, bearings, bushings, and because of good heat-resistance, increasingly for under-the-hood applications in cars, and other mechanical parts.
Natural Rubber
Natural rubber is an elastomer (an elastic hydrocarbon polymer) that was originally derived from latex, a milky colloidal suspension found in the sap of some plants. It is useful directly in this form (indeed, the first appearance of rubber in Europe is cloth waterproofed with unvulcanized latex from Brazil) but, later, in 1839, Charles Goodyear invented vulcanized rubber; this a form of natural rubber heated with, mostly, sulfur forming cross-links between polymer chains (vulcanization), improving elasticity and durability. Plastic is very known in these areas.
Synthetic Rubber
The first fully synthetic rubber was synthesized by Lebedev in 1910. In World War II, supply blockades of natural rubber from South East Asia caused a boom in development of synthetic rubber, notably Styrene-butadiene rubber (a.k.a. Government Rubber-Styrene). In 1941, annual production of synthetic rubber in the U.S. was only 231 tons which increased to 840 000 tons in 1945. In the space race and nuclear arms race, Caltech researchers experimented with using synthetic rubbers for solid fuel for rockets. Ultimately, all large military rockets and missiles would use synthetic rubber based solid fuels, and they would also play a significant part in the civilian space effort.
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), better known as Plexiglass acrylic. Although acrylics are now well known for their use in paints and synthetic fibers, such as fake furs, in their bulk form they are actually very hard and more transparent than glass, and are sold as glass replacements under trade names such as Acrylite, Perspex, Plexiglas and Lucite. These were used to build aircraft canopies during the war, and its main application now is large illuminated signs such as are used in shop fronts or inside large stores, and for the manufacture of vacuum-formed bath-tubs.
Polyethylene (PE), sometimes known as polythene, was discovered in 1933 by Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett at the British industrial giant Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI). This material evolved into two forms, Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), and High Density Polyethylene (HDPE). PEs are cheap, flexible, durable, and chemically resistant. LDPE is used to make films and packaging materials, while HDPE is used for containers, plumbing, and automotive fittings. While PE has low resistance to chemical attack, it was found later that a PE container could be made much more robust by exposing it to fluorine gas, which modified the surface layer of the container into the much tougher polyfluoroethylene.
Polypropylene (PP), which was discovered in the early 1950s by Giulio Natta. It is common in modern science and technology that the growth of the general body of knowledge can lead to the same inventions in different places at about the same time, but polypropylene was an extreme case of this phenomenon, being separately invented about nine times. The ensuing litigation was not resolved until 1989. Polypropylene managed to survive the legal process and two American chemists working for Phillips Petroleum, J. Paul Hogan and Robert Banks, are now generally credited as the primary inventors of the material. Polypropylene is similar to its ancestor, polyethylene, and shares polyethylene's low cost, but it is much more robust. It is used in everything from plastic bottles to carpets to plastic furniture, and is very heavily used in automobiles.
Polyurethane (PU) was invented by Friedrich Bayer & Company in 1937, and would come into use after the war, in blown form for mattresses, furniture padding, and thermal insulation. It is also one of the components (in non-blown form) of the fiber spandex.
Epoxy - In 1939, IG Farben filed a patent for polyepoxide or epoxy. Epoxies are a class of thermoset plastic that form cross-links and cure when a catalyzing agent, or hardener, is added. After the war they would come into wide use for coatings, adhesives, and composite materials. Composites using epoxy as a matrix include glass-reinforced plastic, where the structural element is glass fiber, and carbon-epoxy composites, in which the structural element is carbon fiber. Fiberglass is now often used to build sport boats, and carbon-epoxy composites are an increasingly important structural element in aircraft, as they are lightweight, strong, and heat resistant.
PET, PETE, PETG, PET-P (polyethylene terephthalate)
Two chemists named Rex Whinfield and James Dickson, working at a small English company with the quaint name of the Calico Printer's Association in Manchester, developed polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE) in 1941, and it would be used for synthetic fibers in the postwar era, with names such as polyester, dacron, and Terylene.
PET is less gas-permeable than other low-cost plastics and so is a popular material for making bottles for Coca-Cola and other carbonated drinks, since carbonation tends to attack other plastics, and for acidic drinks such as fruit or vegetable juices. PET is also strong and abrasion resistant, and is used for making mechanical parts, food trays, and other items that have to endure abuse. PET films are used as a base for recording tape.
PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) (aka Teflon®)
One of the most impressive plastics used in the war, and a top secret, was polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), better known as Teflon, which could be deposited on metal surfaces as a scratch-proof and corrosion-resistant, low-friction protective coating. The polyfluoroethylene surface layer created by exposing a polyethylene container to fluorine gas is very similar to Teflon. A DuPont chemist named Roy Plunkett discovered Teflon by accident in 1938. During the war, it was used in gaseous-diffusion processes to refine uranium for the atomic bomb, as the process was highly corrosive. By the early 1960s, Teflon adhesion-resistant frying pans were in demand.
Polycarbonate - Lexan is a high-impact polycarbonate originally developed by General Electric. Makrolon® and Tuffak are tradenames high-impact polycarbonate plastic made by Plaskolite.
Biodegradable (Compostable) Plastics
Research has been done on biodegradable plastics that break down with exposure to sunlight (e.g., ultra-violet radiation), water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes, wind abrasion and some instances rodent pest or insect attack are also included as forms of biodegradation or environmental degradation. It is clear some of these modes of degradation will only work if the plastic is exposed at the surface, while other modes will only be effective if certain conditions exist in landfill or composting systems. Starch powder has been mixed with plastic as a filler to allow it to degrade more easily, but it still does not lead to complete breakdown of the plastic. Some researchers have actually genetically engineered bacteria that synthesize a completely biodegradable plastic, but this material, such as Biopol, is expensive at present. The German chemical company BASF makes Ecoflex, a fully biodegradable polyester for food packaging applications. Gehr Plastics has developed ECOGEHR, a full-range of Bio-Polymer Shapes distributed by Professional Plastics.
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ProFlex Socket Series
ProFlex is a soft socket materials, which provides the ultimate in comfort for prosthetic patients. ProFlex has excellent transparency because it is an ethylene based thermoplastics. It's vacuum formed easily and is extremely durable for active patients. ProFlex is 100% manufactured in the USA.
Sheet Sizes:
48" x 96", 24" x 48" & 16" x 16"
Standard Thicknesses: .125", .156", .187", .250", .375", .500" & .625"
Processing:
ProFlex should be oven heated at approximately 350 F for 6 to 10 minutes, depending on thickness.
- When using a vacuum-forming frame, remember to pull slowly for best results.
- Caution: Do not use nylon stockinet over the positive model. ProFlex is very tacky when hot.
- Available in Standard ProFlex or ProFlex-S (with silicone adhesive)
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Sani-Tech® SIL-250
Sani-Tech® Sil-250 is a high-performance platinum-cured extended-life silicone-tubing formulation specifically designed for demanding peristaltic pump applications. With its superior flex life characteristics, manufacturing processes can be simplified by reducing potential production time due to pump tubing failure. Sani-Tech® Sil-250 has an extreme smooth inner surface that helps reduce the risk of particle entrapment during sensitive fluid transfer.
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Sani-Tech® STHT™-R
Sani-Tech® STHT™-R platinum-cured braid-reinforced silicone hose is an ultra-flexible, high-purity hose that was developed for higher-pressure applications. Sani-Tech® STHT™-R is manufactured with Sani-Tech® 65 custom-brand silicone resin. Sani-Tech® STHT™-R hose resists temperature extremes, ozone, radiation, moisture, compression sets, weathering and chemical attack and imparts no taste or odors to fluids transported within it. Sani-Tech® STHT™-R hose withstands repeated autoclaving and sterilization and resists the adherence of blood products and other sanitary fluids.
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![Semiconductor Processing Steps]( "Semiconductor Processing Steps")
Semiconductor Processing Steps
Semiconductor device fabrication is the process used to create chips, the integrated circuits that are present in everyday electrical and electronic devices. It is a multiple-step sequence of photographic and chemical processing steps during which electronic circuits are gradually created on a wafer made of pure semiconducting material. Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor material today, along with various compound semiconductors. The entire manufacturing process from start to packaged chips ready for shipment takes six to eight weeks and is performed in highly specialized facilities referred to as fabs.
Wafers
A typical wafer is made out of extremely pure silicon that is grown into mono-crystalline cylindrical ingots (boules) up to 300 mm (slightly less than 12 inches) in diameter using the Czochralski process. These ingots are then sliced into wafers about 0.75 mm thick and polished to obtain a very regular and flat surface.
Once the wafers are prepared, many process steps are necessary to produce the desired semiconductor integrated circuit. In general, the steps can be grouped into two areas:
- Front end processing
- Back end processing
Processing
In semiconductor device fabrication, the various processing steps fall into four general categories:
- Deposition, Removal, Patterning, and Modification of electrical properties.
Deposition is any process that grows, coats, or otherwise transfers a material onto the wafer. Available technologies consist of physical vapor deposition (PVD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), electrochemical deposition (ECD), molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and more recently, atomic layer deposition (ALD) among others.
Removal processes are any that remove material from the wafer either in bulk or selective form and consist primarily of etch processes, both wet etching and dry etching such as reactive ion etch (RIE). Chemical-mechanical planarization (CMP) is also a removal process used between levels.
Patterning covers the series of processes that shape or alter the existing shape of the deposited materials and is generally referred to as lithography. For example, in conventional lithography, the wafer is coated with a chemical called a "photoresist". The photoresist is exposed by a "stepper", a machine that focuses, aligns, and moves the mask, exposing select portions of the wafer to short wavelength light. The unexposed regions are washed away by a developer solution. After etching or other processing, the remaining photoresist is removed by plasma ashing. Modification of electrical properties has historically consisted of doping transistor sources and drains originally by diffusion furnaces and later by ion implantation. These doping processes are followed by furnace anneal or in advanced devices, by rapid thermal anneal (RTA) which serve to activate the implanted dopants. Modification of electrical properties now also extends to reduction of dielectric constant in low-k insulating materials via exposure to ultraviolet light in UV processing (UVP). Many modern chips have eight or more levels produced in over 300 sequenced processing steps.
Front End Processing
"Front End Processing" refers to the formation of the transistors directly on the silicon. The raw wafer is engineered by the growth of an ultrapure, virtually defect-free silicon layer through epitaxy. In the most advanced logic devices, prior to the silicon epitaxy step, tricks are performed to improve the performance of the transistors to be built. One method involves introducing a "straining step" wherein a silicon variant such as "silicon-germanium" (SiGe) is deposited. Once the epitaxial silicon is deposited, the crystal lattice becomes stretched somewhat, resulting in improved electronic mobility. Another method, called "silicon on insulator" technology involves the insertion of an insulating layer between the raw silicon wafer and the thin layer of subsequent silicon epitaxy. This method results in the creation of transistors with reduced parasitic effects.
Silicon dioxide
Front end surface engineering is followed by: growth of the gate dielectric, traditionally silicon dioxide (SiO2), patterning of the gate, patterning of the source and drain regions, and subsequent implantation or diffusion of dopants to obtain the desired complementary electrical properties. In memory devices, storage cells, conventionally capacitors, are also fabricated at this time, either into the silicon surface or stacked above the transistor.
Metal layers
Once the various semiconductor devices have been created they must be interconnected to form the desired electrical circuits. This "Back End Of Line" (BEOL) the latter portion of the front end of wafer fabrication, not to be confused with "back end" of chip fabrication which refers to the package and test stages) involves creating metal interconnecting wires that are isolated by insulating dielectrics. The insulating material was traditionally a form of SiO2 or a silicate glass, but recently new low dielectric constant materials are being used. These dielectrics presently take the form of SiOC and have dielectric constants around 2.7 (compared to 3.9 for SiO2), although materials with constants as low as 2.2 are being offered to chipmakers.
Interconnect
Historically, the metal wires consisted of aluminium. In this approach to wiring often called "subtractive aluminium", blanket films of aluminium are deposited first, patterned, and then etched, leaving isolated wires. Dielectric material is then deposited over the exposed wires. The various metal layers are interconnected by etching holes, called "vias," in the insulating material and depositing tungsten in them with a CVD technique. This approach is still used in the fabrication of many memory chips such as dynamic random access memory (DRAM) as the number of interconnect levels is small, currently no more than four.
More recently, as the number of interconnect levels for logic has substantially increased due to the large number of transistors that are now interconnected in a modern microprocessor, the timing delay in the wiring has become significant prompting a change in wiring material from aluminium to copper and from the silicon dioxides to newer low-K material. This performance enhancement also comes at a reduced cost via damascene processing that eliminates processing steps. In damascene processing, in contrast to subtractive aluminium technology, the dielectric material is deposited first as a blanket film and is patterned and etched leaving holes or trenches. In "single damascene" processing, copper is then deposited in the holes or trenches surrounded by a thin barrier film resulting in filled vias or wire "lines" respectively. In "dual damascene" technology, both the trench and via are fabricated before the deposition of copper resulting in formation of both the via and line simultaneously, further reducing the number of processing steps. The thin barrier film, called Copper Barrier Seed (CBS), is necessary to prevent copper diffusion into the dielectric. The ideal barrier film is effective, but is barely there. As the presence of excessive barrier film competes with the available copper wire cross section, formation of the thinnest yet continuous barrier represents one of the greatest ongoing challenges in copper processing today.
As the number of interconnect levels increases, planarization of the previous layers is required to ensure a flat surface prior to subsequent lithography. Without it, the levels would become increasingly crooked and extend outside the depth of focus of available lithography, interfering with the ability to pattern. CMP (Chemical Mechanical Polishing) is the primary processing method to achieve such planarization although dry "etch back" is still sometimes employed if the number of interconnect levels is no more than three.
Wafer Test
The highly serialized nature of wafer processing has increased the demand for metrology in between the various processing steps. Wafer test metrology equipment is used to verify that the wafers are still good and haven't been damaged by previous processing steps. If the number of "dies" the integrated circuits that will eventually become "chips" on a wafer that measure as fails exceeds a predetermined threshold, the wafer is scrapped rather than investing in further processing.
Device Test
Once the Front End Process has been completed, the semiconductor devices are subjected to a variety of electrical tests to determine if they function properly. The proportion of devices on the wafer found to perform properly is referred to as the yield. The fab tests the chips on the wafer with an electronic tester that presses tiny probes against the chip. The machine marks each bad chip with a drop of dye. The fab charges for test time; the prices are on the order of cents per second. Chips are often designed with "testability features" to speed testing, and reduce test costs. Good designs try to test and statistically manage corners: extremes of silicon behavior caused by operating temperature combined with the extremes of fab processing steps. Most designs cope with more than 64 corners.
Packaging
Once tested, the wafer is scored and then broken into individual die. Only the good, undyed chips go on to be packaged. Plastic or ceramic packaging involves mounting the die, connecting the die pads to the pins on the package, and sealing the die. Tiny wires are used to connect pads to the pins. In the old days, wires were attached by hand, but now purpose-built machines perform the task. Traditionally, the wires to the chips were gold, leading to a "lead frame" (pronounced "leed frame") of copper, that had been plated with solder, a mixture of tin and lead. Lead is poisonous, so lead-free "lead frames" are now the best practice. Chip-scale package (CSP) is another packaging technology. Plastic packaged chips are usually considerably larger than the actual die, whereas CSP chips are nearly the size of the die. CSP can be constructed for each die before the wafer is diced.
The packaged chips are retested to ensure that they were not damaged during packaging and that the die-to-pin interconnect operation was performed correctly. A laser etches the chips' name and numbers on the package.
List of Steps:
This is a list of processing techniques that are employed numerous times in a modern electronic device and do not necessarily imply a specific order.
- Wafer Processing - Wet cleans - Photolithography - Ion implantation (in which dopants are embedded in the wafer creating regions of increased (or decreased) conductivity) - Dry etching - Wet etching - Plasma ashing - Thermal treatments - Rapid thermal anneal - Furnace anneals - Thermal oxidation - Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) - Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) - Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) - Electrochemical Deposition (ECD) - Chemical-mechanical planarization (CMP) - Wafer testing (where the electrical performance is verified) - Wafer backgrinding (to reduce the thickness of the wafer so the resulting chip can be put into a thin device like a smartcard or PCMCIA card.) - Die Preparation - Wafer mounting - Die cutting - IC Packaging - Die attachment - IC Bonding - Wire bonding - Flip chip - Tab bonding - IC Encapsulation - Baking - Plating - Lasermarking - Trim and form - IC Testing
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![Semitron® ESd 420 - ESd PEI (ULTEM)]( "Semitron® ESd 420 - ESd PEI (ULTEM)")
Semitron® ESd 420 - ESd PEI (ULTEM)
Semitron® 420 is stocked in our USA, Singapore and Taiwan Warehouses. Semitron ESd 420 Static Dissipative PEI is the only, truly dissipative plastic product for use in high temperature applications. This material offers a unique combination of properties including: static dissipation, low coefficient of expansion, high strength and heat resistance and is non-sloughing. ESd 420 has a tensile modulus of 550,000 psi, a heat deflection temperature (at 264 psi) of 420°F, and a surface resistivity in the intermediate range of 106 to 109 ohms/square (W/sq.).
Semitron stock shapes for machining, is ideal for making fixtures for handling silicon wafers and devices in equipment for manufacturing semiconductor devices.
- Semitron 420 is stocked in our USA, Singapore and Taiwan Warehouses
Semitron® ESd 420 is also ideal for use in equipment for handling components in the hard-drive manufacturing and assembly processes. Semitron® ESd 420 also has a low coefficient of thermal expansion, high compressive strength and good wear resistance. MCAM-Quadrant Semitron® ESd 420 shapes have very low residual stresses and as a result can be machined very flat and to very tight tolerances. Perhaps most importantly Semitron® ESd 420 is non-sloughing. As a result, it does not particulate significantly in these handling applications. Wafer combs and other parts for handling sensitive electronic components must be dissipative. More importantly they must be capable of discharging static electricity in a controlled manner. An uncontrolled discharge event can lead to damaged product. Semitron® ESd 420, which has a surface resistivity of 106 to 109 Ohms/sq., is ideal for use in such applications. Semitron 420 reliably meets all physical performance needs for wafer combs and other handling components, combined with stable ESd performance.
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Semitron® ESd 225 - Acetal
Semitron® ESd 225 Acetal Sheets & Rods
Semitron® ESd products are inherently dissipative and electrically stable unlike many other "dissipative" plastic shapes. They do not rely on atmospheric phenomena to activate, nor are surface treatments used to achieve dissipation. Static electricity is dissipated through these products as readily as it is dissipated along the surface. All of these products dissipate 5 KV in less than 2 seconds per Mil-B-81705C.
- Surface Resistivity of 109 to 1010 Ohms per square
- Note: Maximum Operating Temperature is 190°F (82°C )
- For higher operating temperatures, consider other materials in the Semitron family.
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![Semitron® ESd Overview]( "Semitron® ESd Overview")
Semitron® ESd Overview
The Semitron® ESd family of static dissipative products was designed by MCAM-Quadrant for use where electrical discharge in operation is a problem. They are commonly used for sensitive electronic components including: integrated circuits, hard disk drives and circuit boards. Semitron products are also an excellent choice for material handling applications, and components in high speed electronic printing and reproducing equipment.
Semitron® ESd products are inherently dissipative and electrically stable unlike many other "dissipative" plastic shapes. They do not rely on atmospheric phenomena to activate, nor are surface treatments used to achieve dissipation. Static electricity is dissipated through these products as readily as it is dissipated along the surface. All of these products dissipate 5 KV in less than 2 seconds per Mil-B-81705C.
- Available from USA, Singapore and Taiwan stock.
Semitron® ESd 225
Static Dissipative Acetal - ORDER ONLINE
Semitron® ESd 225 is ideal for fixturing used in the manufacturing of hard disk drives or for handling in-process silicon wafers. It is tan in color.
- Surface resistivity: 10*10 - 10*12 ohms/sq.
- Thermal performance to 225°F (107°C)
- Good wear resistance
Semitron® ESd 410C
Static Dissipative PEI - ORDER ONLINE
Semitron® ESd 410c is ideal for handling integrated circuits through the test handler environment. It is black in color and opaque.
- Surface resistivity: 10*4 - 10*6 ohms/sq.
- Thermal performance to 410°F (210°C)
- Low stress for tight tolerance machining
- High strength and stiffness
Semitron® ESd 420
Static Dissipative PEI - ORDER ONLINE
Semitron® ESd 420 is the only, truly dissipative plastic product for use in high temperature applications.
- Surface resistivity: 10*6 - 10*9 ohms/sq.
- Thermal performance
Semitron® ESd 480
Static Dissipative PEEK - ORDER ONLINE
Semitron® ESd 480 is static-dissipative, carbon fiber reinforced PolyEtherEtherKetone for use where the properties of PEEK are needed, but protection from static discharge is a requirement. This material is available in sheets and rods and is black in color.
Semitron ESd 480 has a surface resistivity of 13 10*6and 1 X 10*9Ù/sq, but its heat-deflection temperature is 480°F. Its chemical resistance makes it suitable for wafer handling and other structural applications in wet process tools where static dissipation is important.
Semitron® ESd 500HR
Static Dissipative PTFE - ORDER ONLINE
Reinforced with a proprietary synthetic mica, Semitron® ESd 500HR offers an excellent combination of low frictional properties and dimensional stability. Semitron® ESd 500HR should be considered wherever Teflon* PTFE is used. It is ideal for applications where controlled bleed off of static charges is critical. It is white in color.
- Surface resistivity: 10*10 - 10*12 ohms/sq.
- Thermal performance to 500°F (260°C)
- Thermally insulative
- Very low coefficient of friction
- Broad chemical resistance
Semitron® ESd 520HR
Static Dissipative Machining Stock - ORDER ONLINE
Semitron® ESd 520HR has an industry first combination of electrostatic dissipation (ESd), high strength and heat resistance. This new ESd material is ideal for making nests, sockets and contactors for test
equipment and other device handling components. The key features of 520HR are its unique ability to resist dielectric breakdown at high voltages (>100V). The graph below demonstrates the electrical performance of
plastic materials commonly used in automated test handlers. Typical carbon fiber enhanced products become irreversibly more conductive when exposed to even moderate voltage.
Only Semitron® ESd 520HR maintains its performance throughout the voltage range, while offering the mechanical performance needed to excel in demanding applications.
- Surface resistivity: 10*10 - 10*12 ohms/sq.
Semitron MDS100 - ORDER ONLINE
Semitron® MDS 100 has a remarkable combination of strength, stiffness and stability. It was developed to be used in uncontrolled application environments or where a high level of precision is required. It is an ideal choice for semiconductor test sockets, nests and fixtures in test and package equipment.
- Moisture absorption of .10% at 24 hrs. (per ASTM D570).
- Thermal performance to 410°F (210°C)
- Flexural modulus > 1,400,000 psi
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SG-200 Dogbone Profile
SG-200 GLASROD® solid rod and bar products are fiberglass-reinforced thermoset polyester shapes which exhibit properties desirable for a wide range of structural and electrical applications. The superior strength provided by the continuous filament fiberglass roving is complemented by the physical and electrical characteristics contributed by the thermoset polyester resins. Together they provide the right combination of properties to offer significant price and performance advantages over alternative materials.
- Grade SG-200 is the highest temperature grade, rated for 210°C/210°C service.
- It offers excellent thermal endurance and is an Ideal replacement for silicone rod.
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